Anchor Bible Dictionary, Keener, NIDNTTE
I • 639 BEELZEBUL
BEELZEBUL [Gk Beelzeboul; Heb baʿal zebub]. Variants: BEELZEBUB; BAALZEBUB.
According to the Synoptic Gospels, Jesus was accused of casting out demons by the power of Beelzebul, a name used to describe the “prince of demons” (ho archōn tōn daimonion), that is, Satan (Mark 3:22–26; Matt 12:24–27; Luke 11:15–19). Matthew 10:25 is the only instance where Jesus himself uses the name Beelzebul. Elsewhere in the Gospels, he uses the name “Satan” rather than Beelzebul.
Scholars have long been intrigued by the etymology of this preeminent satanic figure, and multiple theories have been proposed. The variant “Beelzebub” (attested in Syriac translations and by Jerome) reflects a traditional association with the Philistine god of Ekron, mentioned in 2 Kings 1:2, 3, 6, 16. The Hebrew baʿal zebub seems to mean “lord of flies” (cf. HALAT, p. 250; also LXX baal muian theon akkaron, “Baal-Fly, god of Akkaron”; Josephus Ant. 9.2.1).
Before the discovery of the Ugaritic texts at Ras Shamra, scholars drew parallels from Greek sources referring to deities who averted flies (e.g., Zeus Apomuios, theos muiagros; see Nilsson 1967:213). However, the decipherment of Ugaritic texts revealed frequent epithets such as “Prince Baal” or “Exalted Baal” (zbl bʿl), and “Prince, Lord of the Earth” (zbl bʿl ʾars) (Albright 1936:17–18). With this background, most scholars came to interpret 2 Kings 1 as a pejorative twist on an original baʿal zĕbûl (“Baal the Prince”), changed to baʿal zebub (“Lord of Flies”) as a form of mockery—similar to how bosheth (“shame”) replaced baʿal in names like Mephibosheth and Ishbosheth (see McCarter, 2 Samuel AB, pp. 124–128).
Some scholars have proposed that zbl bʿl may underlie the tribal name Zebulun (Ringgren 1966:21), the personal name Zebul in Judges 9:28, and the name Jezebel (cf. Phoenician PN bʿlzbl in CIS I 158), daughter of Ethbaal (1 Kgs 16:31). Another widely held theory connects zĕbûl with a noun meaning “(exalted) abode.” Prior to the discoveries at Ugarit and Qumran, Aitken (1912:34–53) argued that zĕbûl in its four biblical occurrences (1 Kgs 8:13; Isa 63:15; Hab 3:11; Ps 49:15), along with rabbinic and medieval commentary, pointed to a meaning of “dwelling”—specifically God’s exalted dwelling, i.e., heaven. Thus, Beelzebul as “Lord of Heaven” may originally have referred to a sky deity.
Gaston (1962:247–255), using newly available Ugaritic and Dead Sea Scroll material (e.g., 1QM 12:1–2; 1QS 10:3; 1QpHab 3:34), reached a similar conclusion, emphasizing that zĕbûl could mean “temple” or “heaven.” He further noted that the chief theological rival to Yahweh in the Hellenistic period was the “Heavenly Baal” (Gk Zeus Olympios, Aram bʿl šmyn). According to Gaston, zĕbûl was likely used in place of more common terms for heaven because Christians were grouped among those who “stretched out their hands against the temple (zĕbûl)” (t. Sanh. 13:5).
Matthew 10:25 refers to “the master of the house (ton oikodespotēn) Beelzebul.” Aitken (1912:51) pointed out what seems to be a wordplay, where ton oikodespotēn might translate the Semitic baʿal zĕbûl (“lord of the house”). This interpretation is widely supported by New Testament scholars (e.g., Maclaurin 1978:156–160). A similar wordplay appears in the Hebrew version of Matthew from Shem-Tob ben Shaprut’s Even Bohan, which reads baʿal ha-bayit, baʿal zebub (Howard 1987:46, 195).
Nevertheless, such wordplays, like folk etymologies, may not reflect the actual historical roots of the term. A third alternative analysis interprets Beelzebul as “lord of the dung,” based on speculative cognates in postbiblical Hebrew, Aramaic/Syriac, and Arabic. While this interpretation was once more popular, it has few modern supporters (see Gaston 1962:251–252). Albright (1932:191 n.20) noted that it has been largely abandoned by competent scholars.
Some have connected Beelzebul with Aramaic beʾel debîbāʾ (“enemy, adversary”), noting that in Matthew 13:39 the devil is called ekthros (“enemy”). While this proposal saw little historical support (e.g., Schlatter 1957:343), it has recently been revived by Day (1988:151–159), who argues that this reading better explains the identification of Beelzebul/Beelzebub with Satan. Day also points to a wordplay between beʾel debîbāʾ (“lord of flies”) and beʾel debîbāʾ (“enemy, adversary”).
Day (1988:158) draws further parallels with Akkadian bēl dabībi, asserting this name reflects a primal accusatory role. Kaufman (1974:42–43), however, distinguishes bēl dabībi’s adversarial meaning from a legal role as “accuser,” typically expressed by bēl dîni. Furthermore, both Aramaic debabî and Akkadian dabībi descend from Proto-Semitic d, which appears in Hebrew as d, not z. Therefore, Hebrew zebub cannot be linguistically cognate with these terms—though a folk etymology might still be in play.
Fensham (1967:361–364) proposed that Baalzebub should instead be translated “Baal the Flame,” introducing yet another interpretive direction.
Euphemism and Dysphemism in the Bible
Section I • 723: C. Treatment of Excretory Subject Matter
The divine title Beelzebub in 1 Kings 1:2 is likely a corruption of Beelzebul, meaning “Baal the Prince,” which is accurately preserved in the Gospels (Matt 10:25; 12:24, 27; Mark 3:22; Luke 11:15, 18–19). This is supported by the Ugaritic title of the dying-and-rising storm god: zbl bʿl ʾars (“Prince, Lord of the Earth”).
The term zebub (fly) appears to derive from an onomatopoeic imitation of buzzing insects (cf. Isa 7:18). This has been compared with the Greek concept of a fly-repelling deity, such as Zeus Apomuios (as mentioned by Pausanias). However, in postbiblical Hebrew, the root zbl is also associated with excrement. Therefore, there may have been no need to alter the spelling from zebul to zebub to derogate the deity—since “Lord of Excrement” could be implied by the same root.
This aligns with rabbinic ridicule of the Baal Peor cult, where the term peʾor was interpreted as involving ritual defecation (see Pope, Song of Songs AB, p. 217).